Should Rewards and Punishments Be Used to Motivate Students’ Learning Essay Example for Free

Should Rewards and Punishments Be Used to Motivate Students’ Learning Essay I believe that rewards and punishments do play a key part in sustaining children’s interest and motivation to learn. However, I feel there are other key factors and methods that could be used to greater effect and am inclined to disagree with the question at hand. a) There are many educational theories on the topic of motivation but I believe the Self-Determination and Self-Efficacy theories cover some key aspects that deserve to be mentioned. The Self-Determination theory, in a nutshell, discusses the extent to which people validate their actions upon reflection and engage in them willingly. It assumes that every individual seeks personal development and undertakes challenges to build up their self-esteem (Rochester, 2008). According to Eggen and Kauchak, learners have three ‘innate psychological needs: competence, autonomy and relatedness’. The need for competence suggests that learners have to feel confident in their ability to match up with their peer’s performances, with determining factors like praise and attributional statements regarding the reasons for their performance. The need for autonomy basically talks about learners wanting to feel in control over their learning environment; this can be achieved by pushing them to be committed to their goals and providing detailed feedback after assessments. Finally, the need for relatedness stems from learners wanting assurance with regards to their relationships with the people around them and feeling deserving of care and respect. Eggen Kauchak, 2007) The Self-Efficacy theory is similar to the Self-Determination theory in certain aspects; basically, it focuses on learners’ confidence in their capability to achieve success, which in turn determines how you tackle challenges. (Wagner, 2008) The four factors influencing self-efficacy are past performance, modelling, verbal persuasion and psychological state. Past performances, the most important factor of the four, determine a person’s initial confidence in handling the task at hand while modelling gives learners a sense of the benchmark expecte d from them, thus giving them greater confidence in their preparations. Verbal persuasion, when used appropriately, can help spur learners on when they are in determining their progress and, eventually, their success. (Eggen Kauchak, 2007) What impact do these two theories have on learners’ motivation to learn? To put it simply, both theories believe that by acknowledging their innate needs and boosting their confidence, learners will most likely be more motivated to learn. Learners aged 7-11 are in the concrete operational stage and are ‘increasingly conscious of cognitive capacities and effective strategies’ (Berk, 1999); this means that they are more aware of what they can do based on their current level of ability as well as what can be done to improve their performance. Hence, it would make sense that we should aim to build up their confidence such that they can truly perform to the best of their capabilities. There are, of course, some concerns about there being over-confidence as a result of being ‘overly-encouraged’. Also, there is a limit to the effectiveness of verbal persuasion in really motivating students to press on with the task at hand. (Eggen Kauchak, 2007) However, a crucial point to note is that any effort to boost their confidence is to increase their self-belief, to believe that they can succeed if they put in the necessary amount of effort; that way their mindset towards challenges will be a much healthier one. Thus, the Self-determination and Self-Efficacy theories show that rewards and punishments need not be the sole factor in motivating learners. ) The Self-Determination and Self-Efficacy theories discussed earlier were schools of thought belonging to cognitive theories of motivation. The use of rewards and punishments in classrooms is a behavioural view of motivation. It states that learning is a ‘change in behaviour that occurs as a result of experience’ and thus, ‘an increase in studying or learning behaviours is viewed as evidence of motivation’. ( Eggen Kauchak, 2007) There is some debate over the effectiveness of using rewards in classrooms and whether it really boosts learners’ motivation to learn. On the one hand, some argue that using rewards can lead to a whole host of problems, the first being that rewards give learners the wrong impression about the true meaning of learning and undermines their ‘motivation to be involved in an activity for its own sake’, or intrinsic motivation. Others believe that behaviourism alone does not fully account for learners’ motivation as they rely on extrinsic motivators, or ‘motivation to engage in an activity as a mean to an end’, meaning that cognitive factors like learners’ expectations are not accounted for. Eggen Kauchak, 2007) According to Berk, ‘children think in an organized, logical fashion only when dealing with concrete information they can directly perceive’ (Berk, 1999); this indicates that using methods based on behaviourism, namely rewards and punishment, will not serve much purpose in helping learners deal with abstract concepts and higher-order skills. Rather, methods base d on cognitive development could be used to greater effect. Also, the presence of so many variables in today’s learning environment means that the success of using behaviourism-based strategies is quite beyond our control. All this only serves to affirm that the use of rewards and punishments would not necessarily be effective in motivating learners’ learning. On the other hand, Piaget’s explanation of knowledge acquisition shows that behaviourism does indeed aid cognitive development; Piaget himself believed that knowledge is ‘constructed or created gradually, as maturing individuals interact with the environment’, or constructivism in simple terms. By rewarding or punishing learners, their physical learning environment is affected, which in turn has an impact on their creating and re-learning of new knowledge. Indeed, by making use of rewards for tasks that learners do not find too intrinsically appealing, like word problems and emphasising greater competence as the reason for rewards, learners could indeed be more motivated to learn. Eggen Kauchak, 2007) Hence, it might be best to acknowledge that while rewards and punishments may not necessarily be the most effective way to motivate learners, it would not be ideal to eradicate them from teaching strategies too. Thus, the emphasis should be on appropriate implementation of rewards and punishments so as to motivate learning. c) There are many different strategies that can or should not be in place to facilitate the motivation of learners and they fall under different approaches: cognitive, humanistic and behaviourism. One critical cognitive theory known as the Expectancy ? Value theory suggests that learners feel encouraged to participate in a task only to the point where they believe they will succeed multiplied by the importance they feel this particular success is worth. The Expectancy ? Value theory has two influencing variables: expectancy for success and task value. To help learners be more confident about their chances of success, we can try to change their opinion of the challenge a particular task poses as well as their preconceptions of their own abilities. This can be done by nurturing expectations of success by providing just enough assistance for learners to make headway on challenges. Also, we can enhance the task’s value by increasing intrinsic interest, the tasks importance and utility value. To achieve this, tasks will have to be linked to real-world situations and appeal to learners in terms of its usefulness and novelty. A simple way of achieving this would be to make use of ‘concrete examples’ to raise enthusiasm and stress the specific usefulness of the task. (Eggen Kauchak, 2007) What should not be done, then, in the terms of cognitive theories? According to Eggen and Kauchak, there is another influencing variable that influences learners’ perception of a task’s value: cost. It is defined as the ‘negative aspect of engaging in a task’. There can be emotional and psychological costs that hinder learners performing according to their true abilities (Eggen Kauchak, 2007) and it is up to the teacher to be aware of the situation and help to the best of her abilities. Metacognition, the ‘ability to think about thinking, to play with thoughts and to monitor and deploy mental effort strategically’ (Forsyth, Forsyth, Schickedanz, Shickedanz, 2001), is almost like multi-tasking; learners have to juggle many different kinds of thought processes. It is crucial in the all-round development of learners and the presence of emotional or psychological costs in their learning environment can have an adverse impact on their motivation to learn. Thus, it is vital that teachers do not ignore the presence of these factors. The humanistic view of motivation has to do with our desire to achieve maximum potential as humans. (Eggen Kauchak, 2007) We look to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs to help explain motivation from a humanistic viewpoint. Maslow believed that basic needs lower down the pyramid have to be fulfilled before needs higher up the pyramid can be fulfilled. (Hierarchy of needs, 2007) What this means is that teachers have to create a positive and secure learning environment to satisfy learners’ basic and growth needs. By treating everyone in the same positive manner by focusing on their ‘intrinsic worth’ and viewing them as ‘developing human beings’, one can be assured that learners will find the motivation to learn. However, critics of Maslow’s theory argue that insufficient research has been conducted to support these claims and that his hierarchy of needs does not always hold true as individuals can achieve higher needs, like aesthetic appreciation, without fulfilling their basic needs. With disability becoming an ‘emerging priority’ in Singapore, there is an even greater need to ‘succeed in valuing and practising a cohesive spirit’ so as to ‘meet future challenges’ (Lim, Thaver, Slee, 2008); which is why it is vital for teachers to ‘treat students as people first and learners second’. Eggen Kauchak, 2007) By striving to create an inclusive classroom, it will be easier motivating learners. Finally, we come to behavioural views of motivation. Earlier in the essay, rewards and punishments were said to be behavioural methods. This can be done in a learning-focused environment, which ‘emphasizes effort, continuous improvement and u nderstanding’. To do that, we can help learners to self-regulate their behaviour and structure the learning environment using climactic and instructional factors. When self-regulation takes place, learners will take more pride in their work and be more committed to the goals they set. Teachers can aid the process by modelling responsibility and help learners set guidelines in place. Climactic variables like encouraging success and handling challenges also play a key role in creating a motivating environment. By providing sufficient help in challenging tasks and highlighting the reasons for assignments, the learning environment will be better suited for motivation to learn. Instructional variables are key to capturing learners’ interest, which determines how much effort they place on the task in turn. Involving students in personalized tasks and providing detailed feedback helps to build their intrinsic motivation to learn and succeed. (Eggen Kauchak, 2007) In any classroom, there will always be distractions that threaten to impair any carefully-laid lesson plans. Thus, learners should not be left out of the drawing up of classroom rules and expectations; they would then be familiar with any signals from the teacher indicating a disturbance or lack of attention. Also, not every interruption needs to be addressed immediately; by ignoring minor disruptions occasionally, it serves as a subtle cue for the offender to not resort to similar tactics to gain attention. (Divaharan Wong, 2008) Teachers should not get into the habit of jumping into a new topic immediately too, as a novel introductory focus (an appealing and scaffolded structure of the lesson) will appeal to learners’ interest and prior knowledge, thus motivating them intrinsically.

Love in Othello Essay examples -- Othello essays

Love in Othello  Ã‚        Ã‚  Ã‚   In William Shakespeare’s tragic drama Othello, love comes in many colors. Consider Othello’s love of Iago; the ancient’s so-called love for Emilia; Desdemona’s spotless love for the general; Bianca’s love for Michael Cassio; Brabantio’s love for his daughter. This essay will explore the various types of love as portrayed in this tragedy.    Initially the play presents a very distorted type of love. Act 1 Scene 1 shows Roderigo, generous in his gifts to the ancient, questioning Iago’s love for the former, whose concern has been the wooing of Desdemona. Roderigo construes Iago’s love for him as based on the ancient’s hatred for the Moor. Thus the wealthy suitor says accusingly, â€Å"Thou told'st me thou didst hold him in thy hate.† And Iago responds, â€Å"Despise me, if I do not.† Partly out of hatred for the general and partly out of proving his faithfulness to Roderigo’s cause, Iago asserts in detail the reasons for his hatred of Othello, who has given the lieutenancy to Michael Cassio, a Florentine. Secondly, Iago suggests that Roderigo and he awake and disturb Brabantio, the father of Desdemona:    Call up her father,   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Rouse him: make after him, poison his delight,   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Proclaim him in the streets; incense her kinsmen,   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   And, though he in a fertile climate dwell,   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Plague him with flies: though that his joy be joy,   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Yet throw such changes of vexation on't,   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   As it may lose some colour. (1.1)    Thus a hue and cry is raised in front of the senator’s residence – partly for the sake of Iago proving his love for Roderigo so that the financial rewards will continue coming to the soldier. Once the senator has been awakened, Iago makes a series of loud... ...  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   They do not point on me. (5.2)    The Moor straightway suffocates his innocent wife. Shortly, Emilia comes upon the scene, and Desdemona revives just enough to tell her friend that she dies a guiltless death. Her final words are ones of kindness for Othello, â€Å"Commend me to my kind lord: O, farewell!† Emilia exonerates Desdemona and accuses Iago of causing the murder. She actually gives her life for her lady since Iago stabs her to death for revealing the truth. Othello, grief-stricken by remorse for the tragic mistake he has made, stabs himself and dies on the bed next to his wife, his sorrow being as deep as his love for Desdemona prior to Iago’s machinations.    WORKS CITED    Shakespeare, William. Othello. In The Electric Shakespeare. Princeton University. 1996. http://www.eiu.edu/~multilit/studyabroad/othello/othello_all.html No line nos.

Mba Statement of Purpose

Writing a MBA statement of purpose requires you to really think about yourself and your goals. It helps you to see why you want to enter a MBA program and assures you that you are making the right move. More importantly, it shows your chosen university that same thing. In order to ensure that you really get your point across and that you tell the school what they want to know, it helps to learn a bit more about what colleges look for in a MBA statement of purpose.You can look at multiple Sample MBA Statement of Purpose essays, but unless you get an actual Sample MBA Statement of Purpose essay form the school to which you are applying you may not hit the nail on the head. You may cover what they want to hear and you may not give them all the details they need to approve your application for admissions. A good Sample MBA Statement of Purpose will show you what the college wants and give you a great guide for writing your own. In general, colleges want to see the same types of things fr om a purpose statement.The bottom line is that they all want to see what the statement says about you. They want to learn who you are and why you should be in their program. Understanding this and looking at your essay from their point of view will help you to write the best possible statement. Put yourself in the role of an admission's officer. Consider the fact that you are reading thousands of these essays. Think about what you would like to see. Think about how your essay would appeal to someone who is reading these purpose statements everyday. Does it stand out? Is there anything unique about it or about you that will make them take notice?The admission's officers already know about your great test scores and where you got your undergraduate degree. Do not waste their time telling them abut things they already know. Mix in some interesting things that will catch their attention. Give them something they will want to read. You have to understand that you are not the only applyin g and you essay is not the only one they will read. You have to find a way to make yourself stand out and prove you are different from the rest. You can assume that everyone who is applying has good test scores and good work experience, so you have to go beyond that.You can not rely on your academics to get you by and that is the whole point of this purpose statement. When you sit down to write your statement of purpose you need to keep all of these things in mind. Your purpose statement gives life to your admissions application. It is the one thing that you control completely and the one thing that will show your personality. Do not let the chance go to show who you are by writing a dry statement if purpose. Write something that will make the admission's officers say they need you at their school

In Spoken French, the Ne in Negatives May Be Dropped

French negation can be tricky. Normally, to make a statement negative you need to surround the conjugated verb with the formal French negative adverb  ne...pas. However, if youve ever watched French movies or television, or chatted with native speakers, you have almost certainly heard pas (or another negative adverb) used without ne, because this is a typical construction, characteristic of informal and familiar French. Although  the full express  (ne...pas)  is nearly always written out, the ne  is often dropped in spoken French. But  you should be able to construct a sentence, in most cases, using the full ne...pas  that means the same thing.  Pas  without  ne can be used to negate adjectives, adverbs, nouns, pronouns, and verbs.   Purists will tell you that using pas without ne  is wrong (and they tell me I shouldnt teach it), but the reality is that this is how the French speak now.  So if your goal is to sound more French, thats how you should speak, too. Informal Negative Statements Without Ne Je ne sais pas. Je sais pas.  Or even:  Jsais pas,  Sais pas,  and  Chais pas (pronounced  Shai pah). (I dont know.)  Il ne va pas venir. Il va pas venir. (He isnt going to come.)Elle nest pas encore arrivà ©e. Elle est pas encore arrivà ©e. (She hasnt arrived yet.)Ne bouge pas  ! Bouge pas  ! (Dont move!)Il ne faut pas faire à §a  ! Il faut pas faire à §a. (You shouldnt do that!Note: Its not just  ne...pas  constructions where speakers drop the ne; they do as well with all the other negative structures.Je nai plus dargent Jai plus dargent. (I dont have any more money.)Nous ne le voyons jamais Nous le voyons jamais. (We never see him.)Je nai aucune idà ©e Jai aucune idà ©e. (I have no idea.)Je nen sais rien Jen sais rien. (I dont know anything about it.)

Giant Pacific Octopus Facts

The giant Pacific octopus (Enteroctopus dofleini), also known as the North Pacific giant octopus, is the largest and longest-lived octopus in the world. As its common name suggests, this large cephalopod lives along coastlines of the North Pacific Ocean. Fast Facts: Giant Pacific Octopus Scientific Name: Enteroctopus dofleiniOther Name: North Pacific giant octopusDistinguishing Features: Reddish-brown octopus with large head, mantle, and eight arms, usually identified by its large sizeAverage Size: 15 kg (33 lb) with arm span of 4.3 m (14 ft)Diet: CarnivorousAverage Lifespan: 3 to 5 yearsHabitat: Coastal North PacificConservation Status: Not evaluatedKingdom: AnimaliaPhylum: MolluscaClass: CephalopodaOrder: OctopodaFamily: EnteroctopodidaeFun Fact: Despite its large size, it can escape any container with an opening large enough for its beak. Description Like other octopuses, the giant Pacific octopus exhibits bilateral symmetry and has a bulbous head, eight sucker-covered arms, and a mantle. Its beak and radula are at the center of the mantle. This octopus is generally reddish-brown, but special pigment cells in its skin change texture and color to camouflage the animal against rocks, plants, and coral. Like other octopuses, the giant Pacific octopus has blue, copper-rich blood that helps it obtain oxygen in cold water. The giant Pacific octopus is a master of disguise. Can you see it against the coral?. Andrey Nekrasov / Getty Images For an adult-age giant Pacific octopus, the average weight is 15 kg (33 lb) and the average arm span is 4.3 m (14 ft). Guinness World Records lists the largest specimen as weighing 136 kg (300 lb) with an arm span of 9.8 m (32 ft). Despite its large size, the octopus can compress its body to fit through any opening larger than its beak. The octopus is the most intelligent invertebrate. They have been known to play with toys, interact with a handler, open jars, use tools, and solve puzzles. In captivity, they can distinguish between and recognize different keepers. Distribution The giant Pacific octopus lives in the Pacific Ocean off the coasts of Russia, Japan, Korea, British Columbia, Alaska, Washington, Oregon, and California. It prefers cool, oxygenated water, adjusting its depth from the surface down to 2000 m (6600 ft) as required. E. dolphleini distribution. Kat OBrien Diet Octopuses are carnivorous predators that usually hunt at night. The giant Pacific octopus appears to feed on any animal within its size range, including fish, crabs, clams, small sharks, other octopuses, and even seabirds. The octopus grabs and restrains prey using its tentacles and suckers, then bites it and tears away flesh with its tough beak. Predators Adult and juvenile giant Pacific octopuses are preyed upon by sea otters, harbor seals, sharks, and sperm whales. The eggs and paralarvae support zooplankton filter feeders, such as baleen whales, some species of sharks, and many species of fish. The giant Pacific octopus is an important protein source for human consumption. It is also used as bait for Pacific halibut and other fish species. About 3.3 million tons of giant octopus are fished annually. Reproduction The giant Pacific octopus is the longest-lived octopus species, usually living 3 to 5 years in the wild. During this time, it leads a solitary existence, breeding only one time. During mating, the male octopus inserts a specialized arm called a hectocotylus into the females mantle, depositing a spermatophore. The female can store the spermatophore for several months before fertilization. After mating, the males physical condition deteriorates. He stops eating and spends more time in open water. Males typically die of being preyed upon, rather than starving to death. Giant Pacific octopus with her eggs. FriedC After mating, the female stops hunting. She lays between 120,000 and 400,000 eggs. She attaches the eggs to a hard surface, blows fresh water over them, cleans them, and chases away predators. Depending on water temperature, the eggs hatch in about six months. Females die soon after the eggs hatch. Each hatchling is about the size of a grain of rice, but grows at the rate of about 0.9% per day. Although many eggs are laid and hatch, most hatchlings are eaten before they reach adulthood. Conservation Status The giant Pacific octopus has not been evaluated for the IUCN Red List, nor is it protected by the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora. This is because its too hard to find and track the animals to assess its numbers. While not endangered, the species is likely threatened by pollution and climate change. Usually, the octopus flees warm water and dead zones in favor of cooler, oxygenated water, but some populations may be trapped between low-oxygen zones. Yet, the species can adapt to live in deep water, so it may be possible for the giant Pacific octopus to find a new habitat. Sources Cosgrove, James (2009). Super Suckers, The Giant Pacific octopus. BC: Harbour Publishing. ISBN 978-1-55017-466-3.Mather, J.A.; Kuba, M.J. (2013). The cephalopod specialties: complex nervous system, learning and cognition. Canadian Journal of Zoology. 91 (6): 431–449. doi:10.1139/cjz-2013-0009

Manifest Destiny And The American Nation - 2335 Words

Manifest Destiny is the term used by early Americans to describe the belief of the God given opportunity to spread and expand westward towards the pacific ocean. Many settlers believed that God himself blessed the expansion of the American nation. Beginning with the Louisiana Purchase in 1803, Manifest Destiny brought with it not only territorial acquisitions, but also conflicts over the spread of slavery. Southerners wanting to find more land for cultivation, were led to the desire of acquiring new territories. Many citizens (Especially in the North) were deeply concerned about adding any more slave states. Manifest Destiny introduced a heated issue of the addition of slave or free states which provoked war with Mexico in†¦show more content†¦Soon after, the Dred Scott case was introduced into society. The Dred Scott case was a chance to settle once and for all the question of slavery in the territories. Dred Scott was a slave who, after his owner died, sued for his f reedom in the Wisconsin Territory, where slavery had been outlawed by the Missouri Compromise. According to the textbook Liberty, Equality, Power: A History of the American People by John M. Murrin, Paul E. Johnson, James M. Mcpherson, Alicea Fahs, Gary Gerstle, Emily S. Rosenberg, and Norman L. Rosenberg, â€Å"The Southern Supreme Court justices decided to declare that the Missouri Compromise ban on slavery in the territories was unconstitutional...Chief Justice Taney issued that the Court’s ruling stating that congress lacked the power to keep slavery out of a territory, because slaves were property and the Constitution protects the right of property...Taney also wrote that the circuit court shouldn t have accepted the Scott case because black men were not citizens of the US and had no standing in its courts.† (John et al., 2012). The Supreme Court seemed bias when they went against the government in the sense that they proved a law unconstitutional simply becaus e a black man questioned if it applied to him. The Supreme Court generally said that Negroes were not citizens, even if they were free, and had no rights. This denied the rights of a man, but after all,

Case Study of Jenny Coste-Free-Samples -Myassignmenthelp.com

Question: Discuss about the Case Study of Jenny Coste. Answer: Introduction This report critically discusses about the case study of a patient name Jenny Coste. She is an active 9 years old girl, who has recently complained about prolonged pain in legs. The prolonged pain in her legs is harming her quality of life as she could no longer go to school and take part in spots like her other siblings. On visiting a doctor and after sufficient tests, it was found that Jenny had been suffering from acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) (Hunger and Mullighan 2015). It has been reported that after that Jenny struggled with a thorough treatment of long 18 months, after which she showed a brief remission from the disease, followed by a relapse. Her condition is found to deteriorate, and finally she was admitted to the hospital with fungal Pneumonia. It has been reported that her vital signs showed Blood pressure 90/60, Heart rate- 85, IVT- 0.9% NaCl with 55 dextrose at 60 mls/hr. O2 at 2L/min via nasal specs at O2 97%. It has been reported that while she was given the sec ond dose of cefotaxime, she developed an anaphylaxis reaction and developed redness on her stomach. The purpose of this paper is to discuss about Fungal Pneumonia, which Jenny had been suffering from after she had relapsed from the cancer. It has been critically discussed about the pathophysiology of the adverse drug reactions that has developed due to the application of cefotaxime. The report had critically discussed the signs and the symptoms, the pharmacological management of the clinical condition. The report also focuses on the nursing management protocols that are need to be served for a proper care. Reviews from literatures, as supporting evidence in order to explain the required care, has also been provided. This report also throws light up-on the psychosocial issues that jenny had to deal with in this case and have also discussed about the possible remedies that can be provided. It has also been discussed about the role of the interprofessional collaborations that are to be adopted in such a critical situation. Discussion The following case study gives about idea about the fact that the girl was suffering from cancer and he underwent a treatment of long 18 months. Immunocompromised children suffering from cancer, have a constant risk of developing infections. The stage and the type of cancer, the type of the anticancer therapies and antibiotics used, integrity of the mucous membrane and the skin, the duration of the hospital stay, the patients vital status, nutritional status, all are responsible. Immuno compromised patients are susceptible to the risk of developing pulmonary infections, by pathogens such as bacteria, viruses and fungi. Infectious complications like Pneumonia are a major obstacle in immunocompromised children. Pulmonary infections mainly occur due to the aspiration of the pathogens from the upper airways. Opportunistic fungi can colonize and can cause fungal pneumonia (Sahbudak Bal 2015). Fungi like Aspergillus and Cryptococcus are responsible for Pneumonia. In this report we have com e to know that Jenny had been given Cefotaxime to deal with the fungal Pneumonia. Cefotaxime is an antibiotic which is normally administered in case of bacterial infections. This drug belongs to the class of Cephalosporin antibiotics. In addition to the required effects, Cefotaxime also can impose serious side effects and therefore require immediate medical attention. Normally the adverse effects that are caused are abdominal cramps, chills, chest pain, hives, itching, rashes on the skin and many more. In this case we can see that jenny has developed red abdominal rashes which directly link to the evidences provided (Aouam etal. 2012). Not all the side effects of Cefotaxime are reported, but when it comes to an immunocompromised child of just 9 years. Pathophysiology There are certain medicines that can interact with Cefotaxime to generate adverse drug reactions. Especially when a patient is under the medications of cancer, Cycloporins may cross react with the drug to give rise to anaphylactic reactions. Each and every person reacts to medicines differently. A drug suitable for one person may not be suitable for the other person. A person may develop rashes, hives or develop more serious adverse reactions; on the other hand another person may not show any such hypersensitive reactions (Carspecken et al. 2013). The immune system of the body reacts to drugs in many ways. For instance, if a body is allergic to a particular medicine, then the body identifies that particular drug as an allergen or an antigen, as in case of Jenny. The immune system protects the body and fights against diseases and infections. During a hypersensitivity reaction the immune system reacts with the drugs, thinking it as a foreign invader. This immune response leads to inflammation causing rashes in Jenny, and since she is immunocompromised, the situations have turned more critical than it had been in any other patients (Carspecken et al.2013). Hypersensitivity reactions due to drugs are mediated mainly by the IgE antibodies or T cells. The reaction mechanism of IgE is well investigated, but the mechanisms of T-cell-mediated drug hypersensitivity are not well understood (Lieberman 2012). Recent studies have mentioned about 2 concepts: the hapten/prohapten concept and the concept of interactions of the antibiotics with immune receptors (Adam, Pichler and Yerly 2012). In allergic drug reactions, mediated by the T cells, the specificity of the T-cell receptor that has been stimulated by the antibiotic may be directed to a cross-reactive major histocompatibility complex-peptide compound. In the given case study it has been found that Jenny after getting a treatment of prolonged18 months, have been found to develop Pneumonia, and we can see that her condition is gradually deteriorating. This deterioration might have caused by the side effects shown by the antifungal drugs (Jesenak et al. 2014). Medications The selection of the type of therapy of these kinds of patients depends on the type of immune suppression in the patient and other factors such as the presence of the central venous lines. Antifungal therapies are there for the children with cancer (Skidmore-Roth 2013). In case of adverse drug reaction caused by the cephalosporin class of antibiotics, medicines like antihistamines and oral or intravenous corticosteroids or intramuscular or subcutaneous epinephrine can also be applied. To reduce the chance of fungal pneumonia, the following interventions can be taken up for Jenny, prophylactic antibiotic can be given, haematopoetic growth factors can also be given in a prophylactic strategy (Groll et al. 2014). There are several risks associated with giving prophylactic antibiotics, especially when it is just a child of 9 years. Furthermore, recent researches have found that prophylactic antibiotics given to the patients undergoing chemotherapy have helped to develop resistant organisms that can cause infection later on during the course of the treatment. Care should be taken while administrating the drugs as these can have adverse effects in the patients whose immunity is compromised as in case of this case study. The antifungal might cross react and give rise to allergic reactions. Infusion related reactions may occur like it may give rise to rash fever, chills (Smyth et al. 2012). Before administration of the antifungal the clinicians should monitor the blood urea nitrogen, serum creatinine, live function, serum electrolytes before the administration of the antivirals. It can be said that the pharmacist should be aware of the recommended doses for each patient, especially when it comes t o children. He should be well aware of the drug-drug interactions and the general side effects while prescribing these antifungal agents. Elements of care required From the given case study we have come to know that Jenny has been hospitalized for few days with fungal Pneumonia, after which she had been diagnosed with adverse drug reactions after which she had been discharged home with a palliative care team and home care support. Extra precaution should be taken as Jenny has also relapsed from cancer and, even a small hypersensitive reaction can be fatal for her. In case of respiratory distress, arising out of the adverse drug reactions, she can be given aggressive respiratory measures like administration of high concentration of oxygen, mechanical ventilation, endo-tracheal intubation (Laschinger and Smith 2013). Antihistamines and corticosteroids can be administered, keeping the health status of Jenny in mind. The palliative care team for Jenny should contain highly skilled multidisciplinary team of specialized doctors and nurses, which would focus on the holistic care of the patient with a progressive illness. The early integration of a pal liative care not only affects the physical domains of the illness but also caters to the patients psychological, spiritual, developmental wellness (Jacobsen and Wagner 2012). Nursing care plan Recognition of the early signs and the symptoms of acute hypersensitivity reactions. Administration of the Epinephrine by consulting with the specialist. Should avoid the triggering of allergen as much as possible. Looking after the vital signs of Jenny and would try specific allergen therapy to prevent the adverse reactions. Asses the rate and the depth of the respiration and the chest movements. Application of the intravenous body fluids as per the condition of the vital status of Jenny. Communication with the patients family regarding what measures should be taken in case of a future drug reaction, as the patient is immunocompromised. One should teach the patient to carry out the necessary exercises as deep breathing and exercises would bring about expansion in the chest. Frequent monitoring of the chest X-Ray, pulse oximetry readings, for detecting any improvement or deterioration. Would maintain proper nutritional charts, fluids containing electrolytes, beverages that are nutrition enriched. Interprofessional collaboration Interprofessional collaboration is the key to provide a proper healthcare to some clinical complications. Such collaborations improve the health outcome of the patients by reducing the effects of the adverse drug reactions, and lessen the rate of mortality and morbidity. It helps in the optimization of the medical dosage (Falk 2016; Reeves et al. 2013). Team work is always found to be suitable for better outcomes. The interprofessional collaboration that has been adopted in case of Jenny is as follows:- Role clarity Role clarity is required in order to attain a successful palliative team of medical experts. In case of Jenny, the palliative team should contain a medicine specialist, a pedriatric specialist, one oncologist (as she has just relapsed from cancer), a pulmonary specialist, a hematologist and a group of efficiently trained nurses. Each expert having specializations in their individual domains should try their best to manage the adverse reactions caused by the drug and should assure prevention of the recurrence of the adverse drug reactions (Russell 2013). Trust and cooperation Trust and cooperation between the members of a care team is important for successful treatments. Collaboration between the team members, Jenny and her family can bring about a positive outcome in the treatment and would promote fast recovery in Jenny (Falk 2016). Ability to overcome adverse conditions The team of medical experts should be prompt in dealing with the deteriorating conditions. In adverse times team collaboration becomes very necessary. Jenny is suffering from a very critical condition; therefore she needs a care that is exclusively patient centered and a lot of expertise. So, the team should be confident enough to manage the difficult situations. It is not always an easy task to get along well with the team members. An adverse situation cannot be overcome if there is no unity between the professionals. The professionals also should be able to communicate freely with Jennys family (Eijzenga et al. 2013). Collective leadership As we are talking about a palliative team, therefore we should focus on the collective care provided by a team. Collective leaderships reduce the pressure from an individual member in a team (Falk 2016; Laschinger and Smith 2013). Psychosocial issues Jenny is just a child of 9 years, and within this only she has become the victim of the curse called Cancer, therefore it is very natural that she should be suffering from some psychosocial issues. Normally children who suffer from cancer go through emotional turmoil. Therefore they demand special approaches to operationalize the issues that they face during that phase. These psychosocial effects may bring about depressions in the child, which may lead to her widrawal from the loved ones, which is again detrimental for her mental as well as her physical health (Bellizzi et al. 2012). Jenny has been detected with a deadly disease in such an early phase of her life, followed by another infection; she is encountered with traumatic thoughts, palpitations that lead to chronic psychosocial issues in her. Impact of the psychosocial issues Physical concern The principle concern focuses on the impact of the disease on the physical domain. ALL directly impairs the development of the child. Emotional distress and anxiety would leave no room for improvement in the patient (Eijzenga et al. 2013). Cognitive development ALL followed by the Pneumonia, which is again followed by an adverse drug reaction can have a devastating impact on the brain of a child of just 9 years. She had already suffered from the pain of the chemotherapies and radiations. The brief period of remission would have brought a new ray of hope within her, but the recurrence of the discomfort, pain would have shattered mentally. Impact on the loved ones Parents and the loved ones are the most affected and face severe challenges in coping up with the situations. Parents suffer from severe anxiety, trauma and it often becomes difficult for them to assess the situation and take proper action (Wiener et al. 2015). As we can see from the case study that jenny is suffering from post traumatic stress. A comprehensive assessment of the psychosocial issues is required to lessen the depression in the family as well as the child (Marcus 2012). Possible remedies to improve the quality of life In order to deal with the quality of life Jenny and her family needs to register under certain family programs. Programs like social platforms and camps where Jenny could mix with more children like her and get motivated. Play therapies can reduce the emotional turmoil taking place in Jenny, and overcome the impact of the infection (Jacobsen and Wagner 2012). Evidence based care for Jenny Assessment of the risk factors, physical examination and diagnostic evaluation are the ways by which nurses can identify the patients who are likely to become immunocompromised. Safety and care in pediatric patients are dynamic and complex. In some cases the health care professionals knowledge might not be enough, to ensure safe and proper therapeutic regimen to the patient. In such cases it is recommended to go through the case histories of the ADRs. It should be always kept in mind that poor monitoring is worst than poor prescribing. It is the duty of the nurses to monitor the ADRs and report them to the physicians while helping them (James 2013). In case of Jenny, a proper monitoring at the time of administration of the drug and preventive measures could have resisted this condition. Depending on the need the palliative care can be coordinated by a community nurse. Volunteers can provide practical and emotional support. 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